Benchmark Alignment: I.2MS3, II.2MS4, II.2MS5, II.5MS1, IV.2MS2, IV.4MS1

Definition: Issued by Great Britain, the Proclamation barred colonists from settlement beyond the Appalachian Mountains.

Explanation: It became clear after a series of Indian uprisings that British authorities would be unable to effectively protect British settlers on the frontier. The edict was difficult to enforce, as land-hungry colonist resented the measure and continued to stream into the territory. The increased contact between
colonists and Indians led to further cultural diffusion.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: The Intolerable Acts were acts of the British Parliament designed to assert English control over Massachusetts as a reaction to the Boston Tea party.

Explanation: Intolerable Acts were laws enacted by England as a result of the Boston Tea Party

The Coercive Acts:

1. Closed Boston Harbor until the ruined tea was paid for.
2. Revoked the Massachusetts Charter and restructured the government to make it less representative
3. Allowed British officials accused of crimes to stand trial in Britain rather than in the colonies

Other Acts Colonists called "Intolerable":

1. The Quartering Act of 1774 allowed the governor to take occupied private buildings for housing troops, and applied to all colonies.
2. The Quebec Act passed in 1774 allowed the free practice of Roman Catholicism in Quebec, gave their governors sweeping powers but established no legislature and no jury trial, and expanded the boundaries of Quebec to the Ohio River. New Englanders feared that the Quebec Act was a preview of their own futures in light of the Intolerable Acts.

Interference by the British Crown in the daily affairs of the colonists fueled the fire that eventually burned the bonds between England and America. The issue of tea provided the spark. British reaction to the Boston Tea Party and the resulting Intolerable Acts provided support for the colonists' argument that they were being treated unfairly. This clash in ideas and beliefs added to colonial discontent and enabled the patriots to drive a larger political wedge between England and America.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: British colonists who published the pamphlet, Common Sense, in 1776 which strongly urged revolution against Great Britain.

Explanation: Paine published the enormously successful pamphlet Common Sense (Jan., 1776), in which he argued that the colonies had outgrown any need for English domination and should be given independence. In December 1776, Paine wrote the first of a series of 16 pamphlets called The Crisis (177683). These essays were widely distributed and did much to encourage the patriot cause throughout the American Revolution.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: John Locke was a 17th century philosopher who spoke of natural rights that existed because of the nature of human beings and their relationship to society.

Explanation: Locke believed that individuals had certain rights that government could not violate. In fact, the very reason that governments exists was to protect individuals rights, Locke listed the most important of these rights as the rights to life liberty, and property. It is clearly evident that many of the ideas which form the foundation of American democracy came from England.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: First Continental Congress was a meeting in Philadelphia, in 1774, with delegates from twelve colonies to discuss their grievances against the British crown.

Explanation: While expressing loyalty to Great Britain, the Congress' final resolution outlined the colonists rights as British subjects and asserted the peoples right to the exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures. The colonists also called for a ban on all trade with Great Britain. Once again the colonists relied on English law to make their case against the king.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: The most important outcome of the Second Continental Congress established the principles of independence and their grievances against King George. The Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776.

Explanation: Study of the events surrounding the Declaration of Independence and the document itself are critical to and understanding of the ideas, values, and beliefs that shaped our nation and the free world. This document helped formalize those beliefs into principles that would serve as the foundation of our political institutions. Students should learn about the origins of ideas that went into the creation of the Declaration of Independence.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.1MSI, I.2MS1, I.2MS4, I.3MS1, I.4MS4, III.5MS2, VI.1MS3

Definition: George Washington held the Continental Army together at Valley Forge with little more than personal loyalty.

Explanation: Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill River, SE Pa., NW of Philadelphia. There, during the American Revolution, the main camp of the Continental Army was established (Dec., 1777June, 1778) under the command of Gen. George Washington. The winter was severe, food and clothing was inadequate, and illness and suffering pervaded the camp. The number of ragged and half-starved troops dwindled through desertion; the remaining men, about 11,000, talked of mutiny but were held together by their loyalty to Washington and to the patriotic cause. Two distinguished foreigners, French General Lafayette and Prussian General Steuben, shared the misery of the troops; Steuben drilled and organized the men, transforming the loose-jointed army into an integrated force.

Benchmark Alignment: I.1MSI, I.2MS1, I.2MS4, I.3MS1, I.4MS4, III.5MS2, VI.1MS3

Definition: The American victory in this battle was the turning point of the American Revolutionary War.

Explanation: After a victory for the Patriots, the French signed a formal alliance with them. French aid provided money, supplies, a fleet, and troops to the needy Revolutionary forces. The role that the Battle of Saratoga played in establishing a formal alliance with France makes it a symbol of cooperation within conflict. Without the recognition and support from France during the American Revolution, the course of events would have been quite different. By learning about the affect this battle had on the minds of the French and British, students can begin to understand the Revolutionary War within its global context, and factors that lead to wars and alliances.

Benchmark Alignment: I.3MS3, I.4MS3, III.3MS2, VI.1MS2, VI.1MS3

Definition: In the period leading up to the Revolutionary War, and even during the war, there was not complete agreement as to what attitude colonists should take. Several perspectives were common throughout the colonies.

Explanation: The conflicting perspectives are commonly characterized as the "one third, one third, one third" attitude. One third of the colonist were strongly in favor of a war against Great Britain, one third of the colonists were fairly strongly against such a war, and one third had no strong feelings either way. This was a period of great conflict among the colonists themselves as well as between the colonists and Great Britain.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: A system for governing the Northwest Territory, which outlined the steps to statehood.

Explanation: As the thirteen states official became the United States a problem remained. Who would control the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River? To regulate disposal of the land, Congress passed the Land Ordinance Act of 1785. The area was divided into townships and Act permitted the cash sale of the land reserving one of the sections in the township for the establishment of a school. These actions support the Americans belief in the orderly division of states into townships and in the commitment to public education.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: The Articles of Confederation was the first plan for governing the newly declared independent United States, a confederation of sovereign states reluctant to give any power to a central government.

Explanation: The Articles of Confederation and the U.S. Constitution are documents key to the understanding of many important events in American history. The Articles of Confederation established the first government of the United States. There were limitations in the Articles of Confederation. After the Revolutionary War there was a need for a more cohesive government.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: The U.S. Constitution was developed during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. It was ratified in 1788 and is the Supreme Law of the land. It outlines powers for a Federal government while reserving specifying other powers for the individual states.

Explanation: The U.S. Constitution was written to outline the principles and laws that determine the relationship between the people, the states and the federal government. A study of the principles contained in this document will help students understand many subsequent events in American history.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.2MS3, II.2MS4, II.2MS5, II.5MS1, IV.2MS2, IV.4MS1

Definition: The Cotton Gin was a device to clean cotton by removing the seeds more quickly than could previously be done by hand, thus enabling planters to sell more cotton and make more money.

Explanation: After the cotton gin's invention, the dependence on slave labor grew. Eli Whitney's cotton gin gives us a clear example of a technological innovation that shaped the development of America. The story of the cotton gin illustrates how the introduction of a new technology can have a profound impact on economic productivity and people who were touched by the new technology. For example, the cotton gin made it possible for cotton growers to compete more effectively in selling their product in a global market. It also increased the demand for land to grow the cotton and labor (i.e., slaves) to harvest the cotton to unprecedented levels. The introduction of this new innovation cemented slavery as a mainstay of the economy of the southern states. These new demands in turn would influence many of the decisions that shaped a growing nation.

Benchmark Alignment: I.2MS3, II.2MS4, II.2MS5, II.5MS1, IV.2MS2, IV.4MS1

Definition: Textile mills in Lowell Massachusetts in the 1880s.

Explanation: The ways people worked changed in the early nineteenth century. Earlier, whole families worked together at home or in the mills. But as factories needed hundreds of employees, owners found it more practical to hire individuals instead of families. In places like Lowell the textile mills began to hire young single women. They were cheaper to hire than men since they were not seen as having to support their families. Many children were hired also. By 1832, two out of five New England factory workers were children. As owners sought larger profits, they cut wages, sped up production, and increased working hours. As conditions worsened, workers organized more than 60 unions to fight for reforms, such as a 60 hr. workday. These events indicate a change in the economic environment of America in the early days of the century. Large-scale factories also hastened the rate of cultural diffusion.

Benchmark Alignment: I.2MS3, II.2MS4, II.2MS5, II.5MS1, IV.2MS2, IV.4MS1

Definition: A mechanical grain harvesting machine invented by Cyrus McCormick in 1834

Explanation: The McCormick reaper and other machines symbolized the arrival of industrialization on the farm not long after it hit the cities. Steam-powered machines and other devices allowed farmers to cultivate more land and the production of wheat, corn, cotton and other crops skyrocketed. Industrialization had brought the U.S. unprecedented prosperity, but also made the American economy more susceptible to the high and lows of the business cycle. Severe economic slumps in the 1870s and 90s led to bankruptcies and layoffs. Innovation had provided America with both solutions and problems.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.1MSI, I.2MS1, I.2MS4, I.3MS1, I.4MS4, III.5MS2, VI.1MS3

Definition: Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton were famous adversaries in the debate over the interpretation of the Constitution. Jefferson argued for the side of strict constructionists - if something was not stated in the Constitution, it could not be undertaken by the Federal government. Hamilton argued that the government could do anything the Constitution did not expressly forbid.

Explanation: The political/philosophical differences between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton on almost every issue, from the National Bank, to interpreting the Constitution, to foreign affairs, shows students that not all conflicts are carried out on the battlefield. Hamilton personified national power and the role of the favored few in that power structure, while Jefferson glorified self-government and the freedom of the individual. The seeds for a two party political system in America were sown during this rivalry. Some aspects of their debate live on today.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: A central bank chartered in 1791 by the U.S. Congress at the urging of Alexander Hamilton and over the objections of Thomas Jefferson.

Explanation: The first Bank of the United States was a cornerstone of Alexander Hamilton's fiscal policy; it was a means to fund the public debt left from the Revolution, to facilitate the issuance of a stable national currency, and to provide a convenient means of exchange for all the people of the United States. The formation of the Bank precipitated a debate between Jefferson and Hamilton over the correct interpretation of the Constitution but President Washington eventually sided with Hamilton. The belief that the country lacked a suitable means to manage the nations money led many people to support the formation of the National Bank.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: Washington refused to yield to the general pressure for a third term. This refusal was blended with a testament of advice to his country in the Farewell Address of September 19, 1796.

Explanation: Washington, in his farewell address (in a passage drafted by Hamilton) denounced party politics as divisive and dangerous, although political parties did not yet aspire to national objectives. Combined with his refusal to run for a third term, Washington set in motion values and beliefs that influence our thinking to this day.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.1MS2, II.3MS2

Definition: The Louisiana Purchase was an agreement between France (Napoleon) and the U.S. (Thomas Jefferson) to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States for $15 million. Lewis and Clark were dispatched to explore and catalogue the purchase in 1804, with the aid of the invaluable guide and interpreter Sacajawea.

Explanation: The Louisiana Purchase is an outstanding example of the rapid expansion and development of the United States. An important question is: What made this land so valuable to the United States? By studying this event students will understand the relationship between this emerging American culture and how the westward expansion created new possibilities for the use of land, with the associated political and cultural battles.

Benchmark Alignment: I.1MS2, I.2MS1, II.1MS2, II.2MS5, II.4MS4, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, IV.4MS2, IV.4MS1, V.2MS1

Definition: In 1847, war between the United States and Mexico (April 1846-February 1848) stemming from Mexican anger at the United States' annexation of Texas in 1845 and from a dispute over whether Texas ended at the Nueces River.

Explanation: At this time the doctrine now known as Manifest Destiny was at its height in the United States. It expressed a belief that it was the destiny of the United States to occupy all the North American continent and perhaps all of Mexico. The United States annexed the Republic of Texas in 1845, a move that caused the Mexican government to break off diplomatic relations. In 1830s the Mexican government tightened control over Texas which enraged American settlers who then rose up in revolt the next year. By 1835, 25,000 Americans, including 3,000 slaves lived in Texas. The American settlers, Tejanso, and the U.S. agreed to cooperate in the face of the impending conflict which also allowed the U.S. to carry out its policy of Manifest Destiny.

Benchmark Alignment: I.2MS3, II.2MS4, II.2MS5, II.5MS1, IV.2MS2, IV.4MS1

Definition: This is first major legislative departure from the U.S. policy of respecting the legal and political rights of the American Indians. The act authorized the president to grant Indian tribes unsettled western prairie land in exchange for their desirable territories within state borders (especially in the Southeast), from which the tribes would be removed. The rapid settlement of land east of the Mississippi River made it clear by the mid-1820s that the white man would not tolerate the presence of even peaceful Indians there. President Andrew Jackson vigorously promoted this new policy, which became incorporated in the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Although the bill provided only for the negotiation with tribes east of the Mississippi on the basis of payment for their lands, trouble arose when the United States resorted to force to gain the Indians' compliance with its demand that they accept the land exchange and move west.

Explanation: Conflict between the white settlers and Indians, particularly in the Southeast, resulted in the U.S. embarking on a policy of Indian removal from desirable territories within state boundaries. These removals resulted in events like "The Trail of Tears" of the Cherokee in Georgia. Many stories of cooperation among the Indians faced with the reality of the Removal Act could also be explored.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.1MS2, II.3MS2

Definition: Abolition was a world-wide movement to abolish the practice of slavery. In 1833 the first antislavery society was formed in the U.S.

Explanation: The voices raised in the early Abolition movements clearly tell about the struggles large sections of the population faced in achieving social and political equality in this country. Hearing these voices helps students understand that the social and political interactions between different groups of Americans depends on how they were, and are, viewed by society in general. Studying the experiences of ordinary people involved in these movements sheds light on the roles they played in politically changing the landscape of America.

Benchmark Alignment: I.1MSI, I.2MS1, I.2MS4, I.3MS1, I.4MS4, III.5MS2, VI.1MS3

Definition: The Seneca Falls Convention, 1848, initiated a movement for women's rights and was attended by 300 men and women. This convention adopted a Declaration of Sentiments modeled after the Declaration of Independence.

Explanation: The voices raised in the early Women's Rights movements clearly tell about the struggles large sections of the population faced in achieving social and political equality in this country. Hearing these voices helps students understand that the social and political interactions between different groups of Americans depends on how they were, and are, viewed by society in general. Studying the experiences of ordinary people involved in these movements sheds light on the roles they played in politically changing the landscape of America.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: The first secretary of education for the state of Massachusetts.

Explanation: In the 1840s and 50s reformers argued that existing schools, most of them private, were inadequate to educate citizens for participation in an expanding democracy. They sought to establish free public schools. Horace Manns reforms established a model for free public education. He united local school districts into a state system, raised teachers salaries, and up dated the curriculum. Reformers were inspired to improve society and one of the ways the could accomplish this was to reform education.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.2MS3, II.2MS4, II.2MS5, II.5MS1, IV.2MS2, IV.4MS1

Definition: One of the most important transportation improvements, the Erie Canal, opened a transportation route to the west and made New York City the leading trade city in the U.S.

Explanation: After the American Revolution, national and state leaders, such as Henry Clay, began pushing to develop transportation routes to the interior of the country. By 1850, railroad transportation had overtaken canals. Nine thousand miles of track crossed the nation, and in the early 1800's, new inventions and improvements in roads helped to increase trade and lowered the cost of transportation in the U.S.

Benchmark Alignment: I.2MS3, II.2MS4, II.2MS5, II.5MS1, IV.2MS2, IV.4MS1

Definition: Developed by Samuel F.B. Morse this device enabled communications across long distances.

Explanation: With the growth of a national market came the need to communicate across long distances. In the 1830s people saw the potential of the telegraph as a tool for business. Telegraph operators could send a business order to a distant location in minutes. The economic impact of the telegraph and other innovations not only benefited business but increased to speed of civilization and cultural diffusion.

Benchmark Alignment: I.2MS3, II.2MS4, II.2MS5, II.5MS1, IV.2MS2, IV.4MS1

Definition: The completion of four transcontinental railroads connected the country by 1883 and encouraged the westward movements of people, promoted commerce, and communication.

Explanation: The transcontinental railroads accelerated the movement of diverse groups to the "western frontier's" and its economic development. This in turn accelerated the spread of cultures and technological innovations of those groups. For example, the first major immigration of Chinese laborers is connected to the rapid growth of the railroads. The ability to move people and materials more easily to "unsettled" areas of the country increased the demand for land that in turn had dramatic affects on the cultures and lifestyles of the people who lived there already. Confinement of native Americans to reservations becomes common practice at this point. How these groups interacted and adapted to each other continues to shape America.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: As new inventions sent the demand for cotton skyrocketing and Southern planters expanded their production, the demand for slaves rose proportionately. The number of slaves grew from about 1.5 million in 1820 to nearly 4 million by 1860. The Upper South with a surplus of slaves sold them to the cotton-producing states of the Lower South. Although some slaves lived in cities and worked at skilled trades, more than 75% worked on southern plantations and farms.

Explanation: The economic structure of the agricultural South depended heavily on the institution of slavery. In order for the economy of the South to grow the South to grow the demand for more slaves would have to be a part of the equation and this at a time when the anti-slavery forces were growing stronger and more vocal. The conflicting values of a nation were on a collision course which would ultimately end in the Civil War.

Benchmark Alignment: I.1MSI, I.2MS1, I.2MS4, I.3MS1, I.4MS4, III.5MS2, VI.1MS3

Definition: The Compromise of 1850 admitted California to the Union as a free state and abolished slavery in Washington D.C. In exchange, it allowed the other territories in the Mexican cession to decide whether they would be slave or free, and it strengthened the Fugitive Slave Law.

Explanation: The Compromise 1850 intensified the sectional tensions that had existed since the Northwest Ordinance passed 1787. Southern states didn't like the Compromise because it admitted California as a free state. Northerners didn't like the Fugitive Stave Law because it compelled northern authorities to return fugitive slaves to the south. Differences over these issues intensified throughout the 1850's and led to the secession of Southern states from the union and the outbreak of the Civil War.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: Differences over the Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Stave Law intensified throughout the 1850's and led to the secession of Southern states from the union and the outbreak of the Civil War.

Explanation: The secession of the southern states was the culminating event brought on by many diverse values, beliefs, economic needs, and political ideas. Slavery was the most hated of these, but the issues of economic growth and states rights also contributed significantly to eventual splitting of the nation into North and South.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: The Emancipation Proclamation was a declaration by President Lincoln that all slaves in areas rebelling against the United States would be free.

Explanation: The Emancipation Proclamation expanded the purpose for the Civil War from preservation of the Union to a moral fight against slavery. It also was a indication that out of years of conflict, all of the groups who favored the end of slavery could unite in cooperation to see it come to an end.

Benchmark Alignment: I.1MSI, I.2MS1, I.2MS4, I.3MS1, I.4MS4, III.5MS2, VI.1MS3

Definition: On January 1, 1863. The Battle of Gettysburg was a turning point in the Civil War that ended the Confederate push into Union territory.

Explanation: The Battle of Gettysburg marked a turning point in the Civil War. Conflicts ebb and flow. Defeats are followed by successes. The Battle of Gettysburg is just such an example.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: The Gettysburg Address described American democracy as a "government of the people, by the people, for the people." It was a restatement of the ideals of liberty and equality at the dedication of the Gettysburg Cemetery as a tribute to those who died.

Explanation: The Gettysburg Address solidified the purposes for which the war was, being fought from the North's perspective, and set a conciliatory tone for reconstruction so out of defeat of the South could come cooperation for its' rebuilding.

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Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: The Freedman's Bureau, established in 1865, was designed to help southerners, particularly ex-slaves, who were left homeless by the war. They distributed food, ran hospitals and schools, and acted as an employment agency.

Explanation: Some of the major accomplishments of the Freedman's Bureau were in education: more than 1,000 black schools were built and over $400,000 spent to establish teacher-training institutions. All major black colleges were founded by, or received aid from, the bureau. The establishment of the bureau was an example of the different values and belief held by the Moderate and Radical Republicans coming together. In 1866, Congress held hearings on the conditions in the South. These hearings convinced the Moderates to join forces with the Radicals and work on legislation to protect the rights and safety of ex-slaves.

Benchmark Alignment: I.4MS3, I.2MS1, III.1MS3, III.1MS4, III.2MS1, 2, and 3, IV.5MS3

Definition: Reconstruction was the plan to rebuild the rebellious Confederate states and reunite the nation.

Explanation: The 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments established a legal foundation for African Americans citizenship. The end of the Civil War brought a number of rapid changes in long established institutions in southern states. African Americans were granted important rights to participate in the political system through these amendments. The reaction of various groups to their introduction also provides many examples of how certain groups tried to circumvent the law and how the values of the Constitution are often difficult to implement.

• 13th Amendment abolished slavery
  
• 14th Amendment extended citizenship to all persons "born and naturalized in the United States" including African Americans.
  
• 15th Amendment established that "the right to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

Benchmark Alignment: I.1MSI, I.2MS1, I.2MS4, I.3MS1, I.4MS4, III.5MS2, VI.1MS3

Definition: In 1877, shortly after the inauguration of President Rutherford B. Hayes, the last of the federal troops of occupation were withdrawn from the southern states, signaling an end to the era of Reconstruction.

Explanation: To fulfill his promise to end reconstruction, President Hayes appointed a former Confederate leader to his cabinet. The remaining reconstruction state governments lost power allowing Southern Democrats to manage state affairs in their own way. The era of reconstruction had left many problems unsolved and had created a number of new ones. Even though this was true, the ideas, values and beliefs of many forces in the North and South continued to work for the reconciliation of the two sections of the Union.

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