• Transcends time and place,
  • Helps students understand and explain causal relationships in history,
  • Influences many subsequent events,
  • Affects a large number of people,
  • Helps us discern patterns to explain the world around us,
  • Has many clear and related examples,
  • Helps students see history from many different perspectives,
  • Helps students understand the past motivations and actions within the historical context of the time the event occurred, and
  • Illustrates that many different narratives or stories can be told in American and Michigan History.

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE.1, I.2LE3, I.3LE3, II.1LE2, II.2LE4, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.5LE1, III.5LE2, IV.4LE3

Anishinabeg and People of the Three Fires

Definition: By the year 1600, the three tribes living in Michigan before Europeans arrived were the Ojibwa (also called Chippewa), Ottawa and Potawatomi. It is believed that these people migrated to this area from the Northeast coast of North America. But, they may also be descendants of prehistoric peoples who lived in what is now Michigan for thousands of years.

Explanation: We do not know exactly why the Anishinabeg migrated, but it is speculated that it was to escape war, follow seasons, or find better hunting and fishing conditions, thus exposing them to different native cultures (burial mounds & religion), improved tools (use of pottery, metals, canoes, snow shoes, weapons), sustainable food source (farming), better garments (weaving), and luxuries (beads, tobacco, alcohol, musical instruments, cooking vessels). This intermingling of cultures and technologies altered their way of life when integrated and changed the social environment of Michigan natives, even in the pre-settlement times.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: III.1LE1, IV.3LE3, VI.2LE1

European Imperialism and Arrival of the French: Etienne Brule and Jean Nicolet 1608

Definition: Brule and Nicolet arrived in the future spot of Quebec City with Samuel de Champlain where they were accepted into local tribes, learned the native lore, tribal languages and customs. They served as interpreters for other Europeans and spearheaded early exploration of Michigan.

Explanation: Brule and Nicolet's activities as explorers provided an important example of how the commonly held beliefs and ideas of one period influenced change in Michigan. Both men were driven by the widely held belief that they could find a water route through North America to the Far East. Though Nicolet and Brule were not successful in finding a "Northwest Passage", rich resources were discovered in Michigan and other areas. Their exploration changed beliefs into knowledge, and altered the focus of future leaders of expeditions to the region.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE.1, I.2LE3, I.3LE3, II.1LE2, II.2LE4, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.5LE1, III.5LE2, IV.4LE3

Pere Marquette

Definition: Father Jacques Marquette (1638 - 1675), was probably the most famous Jesuit missionary to work with native people in Michigan. He came to convert Native Americans to Catholicism and explore the wilderness described by other French explorers and missionaries.

Explanation: French explorers' interests focused on trade and exploration rather than settlement and domination. The religious enthusiasm of the French missionaries, typified by Marquette, was yet another force that drove some Frenchmen into the interior of the Great Lakes region. Through their close contact, the French were able to impose their religious views on some native peoples and made the exchange of European ideas and technological innovations among native peoples inevitable.

First European Settlement at Sault Ste. Marie

Definition: (1641) Sault Saint. Marie, the first European settlement in Michigan, was established at a major Indian meeting place and village on the St. Mary's River, that strategically linked Lake Superior and Lake Huron and gave excellent access for trade and transportation.

Explanation: Sault Saint Marie typified the French trading post in that it was strategically established at the heart of a major Native American meeting place where Europeans and Native Americans interacted and exchanged goods, services, and ideas. It became an important jumping off point for many of the expeditions that would open up Michigan and expose the native people already living there to European culture, changing their lifestyles forever. This spot remains important to Michigan today. Eventually the Soo Canal and Locks were built at this location and provides the largest ships direct access to eastern markets.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.1LE2, I.2LE1, I.3LE1, I.4LE2, II.2LE3, II.2LE4, II.3LE1, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.4LE3, II.4LE5, IV.1LE1, IV.2LE1, IV.2LE3, IV.4LE3, IV.5LE3

Trade centers and mission at Mackinac

Definition: French explorers and missionaries established strategic trading posts and missions that coincided with Native American fur trapping populations and travel routes.

Explanation: There were five separate settlements on the Mackinac Straits. By 1634, the French, in search of routes to the Far East, penetrated the heart of America. While exploring the Great Lakes they found a unique mix of valuable resources, and an intricate network of waterways navigable by canoes and boats. They also encountered and an indigenous population who became their trading partners and upon whom they focused their missionary efforts. These factors provided impetus for the French traders, explorers, and missionaries to establish trading centers and missions.

The outposts at Mackinac provide a clear example of how Europeans addressed the challenges of trading and living in remote areas. These centers provided protection from the harsh elements of the northern Michigan climate. Fur traders, missionaries and others who ranged far into this largely uncharted area depended on these centers for supplies necessary to continue their work. Serving as centers of commerce, the rich natural resources of the state became the source of wealth for many and opened up wider areas for exploration.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.3LE2, I.4LE1, I.4LE2, III.2LE2, VI.1LE2, VI.1LE3

Detroit Under European Control 1701 to 1796

Definition: In the midst of a series of wars between England and France, Antointe de la Mothe Cadillac proposed that a French colony be established somewhere along Le Detroit (the Narrows). Detroits location was of strategic importance because it was the only water passage to Lake Erie from Lake Huron. On July 24, 1701 Cadillac and his men landed at the site that would become Detroit and immediately began to build Fort Ponchatrain. Toward the end of the French and Indian War British forces took control of this outpost from the French, and it was not until 1796 that the United States took charge of this frontier town.

Explanation: At the time of its founding, Detroit was valued more for its military importance than for the economic reasons that had earlier prompted the establishment of fur-trading centers. Its strategic location made Detroit an inevitable zone of conflict. Cadillac, however, had envisioned a permanent settlement where farming might provide a needed resource for the area. Under his leadership the French created ribbon farms along the Detroit River, to attract settlers and created conditions that several Indian tribes found attractive. This posthole allows students to study many examples of conflict and cooperation. For example, the founding of Detroit began a brief era of cooperation between the French and Native Americans in the region. Detroit was a key staging area for many military actions that were required to maintain France's claims to this territory and battles that took place during the French and Indian War.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.3LE2, I.4LE1, I.4LE2, III.2LE2, VI.1LE2, VI.1LE3

Pontiac's Rebellion 1763

Definition: Chief Pontiac initiated the most formidable native American uprising that united the Native Americans of the Great Lakes area by leading a battle and a siege that lasted for 153 days. in an attempt to expel the British from Detroit. While the attempt to take control of Detroit eventually failed, Pontiac's Rebellion ignited anti-British sentiment among Native American's which in turn gave Britain an excuse to fortify America with 120,000 British troops, limit migration into the western frontier, and better control American dissenters in the East.

Explanation: Pontiac's Rebellion provides an excellent example of how the conflicting needs of different people can lead to confrontation with wide ranging consequences. It also suggests efforts that might have been made on the part of the British to avoid war with the Ottawa and the other conflicts this siege of Detroit inspired. This one event drastically changed policies of the British Crown with respect to Native American tribes in an effort to regain cooperation with those groups. These policies in turn would hasten the onset of another conflict, the American Revolution

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: III.1LE1, IV.3LE3, VI.2LE1

Northwest Ordinance

Definition: In 1787 the Northwest Ordinance established a fair and orderly procedure through which areas of the Northwest Territory could achieve the equality of statehood and self-government.

Explanation: The Northwest Ordinance was the fulfillment of the visionary ideas expressed by the Declaration of Independence, Constitution, and Bill of Rights. By demanding that the original 13 states cede back most of their 'claimed territory' and establish firm state borders, Congressional power was established, thus creating a legal system for equity among states. It established specific procedures for the territories to achieve statehood and guaranteed their residents all the same rights as existing states. It encouraged funding of public schools by the sale of federal lands. Slavery was banned, (because Virginia, wanting to discourage migration of her citizens into the frontier, suggested that slavery be prohibited in the new states), however, federal law allowed any new state to legalize slavery by a vote, and both Indiana and Illinois almost did.

Michigan was first a part of the Northwest Territory, then as a corner of the Indiana Territory, and from 1805 to 1837 the Michigan Territory that grew to extend beyond to the Missouri River.

The Northwest Ordinance provides a good example of how widely held ideas, values, and beliefs of one historical period become formalized as part of our social structure.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.3LE2, I.4LE1, I.4LE2, III.2LE2, VI.1LE2, VI.1LE3

Toledo War 1837

Definition: Michigan's unwillingness to accept Ohios interpretation of their common boundary caused this non-violent "war" to occur. Michigan's border claim was supported by the 1787 Northwest Ordinance and the Michigan Territorial Act of 1805 that organized Michigan. Both of these documents placed the Toledo Strip in Michigan. But Ohio, on the eve of their statehood in 1803, defined a new northern boundary. They claimed possession of a strip of land that included a valuable new lake port, Toledo, strategically located at the mouth of the Maumee River, and the northern terminus (end) of a new canal planned from the Ohio River. Michigan Gov. Stevens T. Mason led a militia to oust Ohio marshals from the strip. Mason was soon removed from office by President Jackson and Congress who feared political repercussions from Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. As compensation for making Michigan give up the Toledo strip, Congress compensated Michigan with the Upper Peninsula.

Explanation: By studying this posthole students can see a clear example of how disputes arise and are resolved. The story of the Toledo War gives us some insights into key factors that lead up to this conflict including political deal-making. It also illustrates important factors that influenced the decisions that were made to resolve issues.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE3, I.2LE4, I.4LE1, I.4LE2, VI.1LE2, VI.2LE1

Opening of the Erie Canal

Definition: The opening of the Erie Canal addressed the demand for labor by the manufacturing centers of Michigan, and attracted people from across the rural United States and Europe.

Explanation: People came to Michigan from the Great Lakes region, the lower Middle West, the upper South, the Gulf states, and Europe. They brought with them their churches, their accents, their customs, and their social attitudes to enrich and improve the state. The stories of these people, from so many different walks of life, help us understand the diversity of our state. This in turn will help students understand the factors that brought about many important social changes in Michigan.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE2, I.4LE1, II.1LE1, II.1LE3, 11.3LE2, II.4LE2

Underground Railroad

Definition: The Underground Railroad was a collection of abolitionists, Quakers and caring people, who created a network of safe houses to help slaves who were escaping from the South through Michigan into Canada.

Explanation: By 1836, Michigan's unity behind the abolition movement increased as the movement gained strength in northern and "free" States. Southern control over Congress enabled slave states to enact pro-slavery decisions, like the Fugitive Slave Law, that drove a deepening wedge between the old south and newer states. Anti-slavery states expressed their dissent by assembling in protest and helping slaves who had escaped from their owners. The study of this posthole allows students to compare and contrast the views of people in Michigan and other parts of the country on the important issue of slavery. It will allow students to raise questions about Michigan's role in the Underground Railroad. It will also help students understand what southern slave owners thought about the broader issue of slavery. This knowledge is critical to understanding many subsequent events in United States history.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: III.1LE1, IV.3LE3, VI.2LE1

Civil War - Michigan's Role: Capture of Jefferson Davis

Definition: In 1865 Col. Benjamin Pritchard of Allegan led Michigan troops to capture Jefferson Davis, the former President of the Confederacy, at the conclusion of the Civil War.

Explanation: The appeal for support by President Lincoln inspired Governor Blair to muster large numbers of Michigan soldiers to fight in the Civil War. Michigan men fought with bravery and valor in every major battle in the Civil War, and played a key role in the Battle of Gettysburg. During the War's closing days the Fourth Michigan Cavalry, under Colonel Benjamin D. Pritchard, played a unique role by capturing Confederate President Jefferson Davis. This is an example of the willingness of Michigan Soldiers' to sacrifice their lives right to the closing moments of the war to achieve a goal.

This posthole provides a clear example of how values that guided residents of Michigan during the Civil War may have influenced the outcome of that war and helped institutionalize the beliefs they fought so hard to preserve.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.1LE2, I.2LE1, I.3LE1, I.4LE2, II.2LE3, II.2LE4, II.3LE1, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.4LE3, II.4LE5, IV.1LE1, IV.2LE1, IV.2LE3, IV.4LE3, IV.5LE3

Posthole Event: 1880 iron ore and lumber

Definition: The development of Northern Michigan and the Upper Peninsula was stimulated by the unique boom in lumbering and mining iron ore and copper from 1860 to 1900.

Explanation: People were, and continue to be, dependent on materials such as iron and lumber are resources necessary for building machines and shelters. The exhaustion of timber in the east and overseas dramatically increased demand for Michigans timber resources. The commercial extraction of natural resources introduced infrastructure improvements (canals, roads, railroads, etc.), and entrepreneurial opportunities for many. The state's population grew dramatically during this period, and influenced development of urban centers.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.1LE2, I.2LE1, I.3LE1, I.4LE2, II.2LE3, II.2LE4, II.3LE1, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.4LE3, II.4LE5, IV.1LE1, IV.2LE1, IV.2LE3, IV.4LE3, IV.5LE3

Posthole Event: Soo Locks and railroads

Definition: The Soo Locks, completed in 1855, and Michigans early railroads were financed primarily by entrepreneurs who saw a high potential return on investments that enabled faster transportation of raw materials to large industrial markets outside Michigan.

Explanation: The development of canals and railroads are both excellent examples of efforts to overcome elements of the natural environment which were driven by economic expansion. Increased demand for Michigan's iron and timber stimulated the use of new methods to transport these materials over great distances. The Soo Locks removed a natural barrier to large freighters that had to travel between Lake Superior and the lower lakes. Michigan's early railroads also made it possible to move materials and people over great distances, again showing our ability to overcome natural barriers.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE3, I.2LE4, I.4LE1, I.4LE2, VI.1LE2, VI.2LE1

Great Migration and Immigration

Definition: The demand for labor to grow the manufacturing centers of Michigan pulled people from rural areas of the eastern half of the country to work in industry. People converged on southeast Michigan from the whole Great Lakes country, from the lower Middle West, from the upper South and the Gulf states. With them they brought their churches, their accents, their customs, and their social attitudes to enrich the life of Pontiac, Flint, Lansing, as well as Detroit which became Michigan's largest and most diverse metropolitan environment, and, for a time, one of the richest cities in America.

Explanation: The stories of these people from so many different walks of life helps us understand the diversity of our state. This in turn will help students understand the factors that brought about many important social changes in our state.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE2, I.4LE1, II.1LE1, II.1LE3, 11.3LE2, II.4LE2

Michigan women and the right to vote

Definition: Womens suffrage was achieved in 1918 in Michigan, 2 years before the US Constitution was changed to give all women the right to vote.

Explanation: Many social movements, including prohibition, were taking hold across America, and the Michigan suffragettes led the way, bringing emancipation to women in higher education and condemnation of the double standard in law and in society.

This posthole gives students a window into this important social movement. By comparing the roles of men and women in our society, students can began to understand how these roles interacted to shape our state and nation. The relationship between state and national policies demonstrates the influence that states like Michigan had on national thought.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE.1, I.2LE3, I.3LE3, II.1LE2, II.2LE4, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.5LE1, III.5LE2, IV.4LE3

Model T and the Assembly Line

Definition: By 1913 Ford Motor Company's Model T was so popular that an assembly line method was devised that cut production time from 12.5 hrs to 1.5 hrs per unit, cut costs for cars and created a demand for labor that caused massive migration from rural areas.
Explanation: This posthole gives students a rich source for exploring how a technological innovation changes the lives of millions of people. Ford and others were able to develop production methods that employed many people at high wages, and to manufacture cars, machinery, and household products cheaply enough for the common person to purchase.. A rural workforce willing to relocate to the city, investors made wealthy by technology that harvested Michigan's lumber & minerals, and ready access to necessary raw materials made Ford successful. That success of the automobile industry forever changed Michigan's culture, economy, and standing in the world.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: III.1LE1, IV.3LE3, VI.2LE1

Civilian Conservation Corps. and Works Projects Administration

Definition: During the Great Depression, President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated federal welfare programs like the CCC and WPA to give people work and a pay check using Federal funds.

Explanation: The Depression caused extensive bankruptcies and unemployment in Michigan. It expanded of the federal government's role in the public's welfare.. President Roosevelt's New Deal created programs like the CCC and WPA, that paid workers to re-plant Michigan's forests, built fire towers and roads, and paint murals. These programs relieved, for some, hardships brought about by the Great Depression and made them good examples of how ideas evolve into institutions and affect the values and beliefs of some segments of American politics and culture.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.3LE2, I.4LE1, I.4LE2, III.2LE2, VI.1LE2, VI.1LE3

The Flint GM Strike 1936-1937

Definition: A group of United Automobile Workers took control of three General Motors plants in Flint and brought about the first agreement between GM and the UAW that guaranteed collective bargaining on a national basis by a union for its union members.

Explanation: As ideas regarding unions changed in the United States during the Depression, the issue of workers rights to organize and bargain collectively became law. The policies of the pro-union Roosevelt administration and the economic devastation of the Depression brought about a rise of union membership for unskilled laborers. This support enabled union members to take possession of essential General Motors plants in Flint and idle a million workers nationwide in an effort to force GM to comply with the Wagner Act. The 48 day sit-down strike provided the leverage that the UAW needed to successfully negotiates terms with GM that gave the UAW recognition on a national basis.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE.1, I.2LE3, I.3LE3, II.1LE2, II.2LE4, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.5LE1, III.5LE2, IV.4LE3

Arsenal of Democracy

Definition: The "Arsenal of Democracy" was a term applied to Michigan because of the State's leading role in supplying war materials for WWII. Michigan's high tech automobile industry was unrivaled in its contributions to the manufacture of war materials. The ability of Michigan engineers and scientists to quickly convert from auto production to superior war products demonstrated their expertise and resourcefulness as a technological leader in developing and honing American ingenuity.

Explanation: The transformation of automobile industry facilities from peacetime to wartime production created booming economic conditions in Michigan. Southern share croppers and men and women from Appalachia moved to work in the huge defense plants. Many different ideas and lifestyles co-mingled as a result. Interactions between these groups increased as they worked together in the plants, and shared public transportation as a consequence of the automobile plant conversions. At the war's end these people continued to make Michigan their home adding to the cultural diversity of the state.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE.1, I.2LE3, I.3LE3, II.1LE2, II.2LE4, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.5LE1, III.5LE2, IV.4LE3

Mackinac Bridge and the Highway Act of 1956

Definition: In 1956 a federal highway act funded 90% of the construction costs of high quality, toll-free, expressways across America, including I-96, I-94 , I-75 and I-69 in Michigan. The Mackinac Bridge was completed in 1957 with state funds.

Explanation: The development of the state's transportation infrastructure facilitated movement of people and goods to and from remote destinations. These improvements enabled products to be moved more quickly to reach their markets. Tourism was stimulated because people from across the region could more easily travel throughout the state and to the Upper Peninsula, via the Mackinac Bridge.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE3, I.2LE4, I.4LE1, I.4LE2, VI.1LE2, VI.2LE1

Walk to Freedom: Dr. Martin Luther King, (Detroit 1963)

Definition: The largest non-violent demonstration to advance racial equality up to that time was led by Dr. Martin Luther King in Detroit in 1963 and was the debut of his famous "I Have A Dream" speech. This occurred nearly on the anniversary of the 1943 Detroit Race Riots.

Explanation: Dr. King helped to focus society's attention on the rising frustrations of Detroit and Michigan's African Americans who experienced discrimination in most areas of their public life. Other minority groups seemed to ascend the socioeconomic ladder over a few generations. But in spite of the general prosperity of the 60's and better economic status for some African Americans working in Michigan's industries, most were relegated to a seemingly inevitable cycle of poverty and injustice. The Civil Rights movement wanted to end this cycle, especially in cities like Detroit.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.1LE2, I.2LE1, I.3LE1, I.4LE2, II.2LE3, II.2LE4, II.3LE1, II.3LE3, II.3LE4, II.4LE3, II.4LE5, IV.1LE1, IV.2LE1, IV.2LE3, IV.4LE3, IV.5LE3

Michigan Beverage Container Act 1976

Definition: In 1976, Michigan passed the Michigan Beverage Container Act, sometimes called the Bottle Bill that required a deposit on beverage containers.

Explanation: This act exemplifies an awakening of public awareness to man-made hazards that endanger Michigans beautiful natural environment. Michigan legislation aimed to change the polluting practices of people and industry. This act reduced refuse on streets and parks, and helped lead to a rise in recycling services reducing landfill waste. Today Michigan is one of ten states who have recycling laws. This legislation is an attempt to overcome the negative affects of human interaction with nature.

back to top

Benchmark Alignment: I.2LE2, I.4LE1, II.1LE1, II.1LE3, 11.3LE2, II.4LE2

Oil Crisis of 1973 - 1975

Definition: The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) decreased oil production causing a shortage of fuel, leading to long lines at gas stations and a higher level of awareness of oil consumption in America.

Explanation: During the "oil crisis", Congress passed laws mandating fuel consumption standards for cars, called Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFÉ) Standards in 1975. The low supply and high cost of fuel caused people to temporarily shift to more fuel efficient foreign produced cars, thus upsetting Michigans auto manufacturers market dominance causing widespread automotive industry layoffs and an eventual revamping of domestic car design.
The Oil Crisis provides us with a good case study of how national and international events can affect our lives. Students should ask what adjustments the automobile industry made as a result of this crisis, and how people in various parts of the country coped with the oil shortage.

back to top